A. 400分求有關植物組織培養的英文文獻資料
The Many Dimensions of Plant Tissue Culture Research
R. Daniel Lineberger
Professor of Horticulture
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
Webmaster of Aggie Horticulture (http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.e/)
INTRODUCTION
The practice of plant tissue culture has changed the way some nurserymen approach plant propagation. In the recent past, the applicability of this technology to the propagation of trees and shrubs has been documented. Some firms have established tissue culture facilities and commercial scale operations are presently in operation for the mass propagation of apples, crabapples, rhododendrons, and a few other selected woody species. The intent of this research update is to briefly examine "what is being done" and to explore "what can be done" with regard to the tissue culture of ornamental plants. Such a consideration necessarily includes an overview of tissue culture as a propagation tool. The major impact of plant tissue culture will not be felt in the area of micropropagation, however, but in the area of controlled manipulations of plants at the cellular level in ways which have not been possible prior to the introction of tissue culture techniques.
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF MICROPROPAGATION
Of all the terms which have been applied to the process, "micropropagation" is the term which best conveys the message of the tissue culture technique most widely in use today. The prefix "micro" generally refers to the small size of the tissue taken for propagation, but could equally refer to the size of the plants which are proced as a result.
Micropropagation allows the proction of large numbers of plants from small pieces of the stock plant in relatively short periods of time. Depending on the species in question, the original tissue piece may be taken from shoot tip, leaf, lateral bud, stem or root tissue (Fig. 1). In most cases, the original plant is not destroyed in the process -- a factor of considerable importance to the owner of a rare or unusual plant. Once the plant is placed in tissue culture, proliferation of lateral buds and adventitious shoots (Fig. 2) or the differentiation of shoots directly from callus (Fig. 3), results in tremendous increases in the number of shoots available for rooting. Rooted "microcuttings" or "plantlets" of many species have been established in proction situations and have been successfully grown on either in containers or in field plantings. The two most important lessons learned from these trials are that this methodology is a means of accelerated asexual propagation and that plants proced by these techniques respond similarly to any own-rooted vegetatively propagated plant. Micropropagation offers several distinct advantages not possible with conventional propagation techniques. A single explant can be multiplied into several thousand plants in less than one year. With most species, the taking of the original tissue explant does not destroy the parent plant. Once established, actively dividing cultures are a continuous source of microcuttings which can result in plant proction under greenhouse conditions without seasonal interruption. Using methods of micropropagation, the nurseryman can rapidly introce selected superior clones of ornamental plants in sufficient quantities to have an impact on the landscape plant market.
PLANT IMPROVEMENT THROUGH TISSUE CULTURE
In introcing this research update, it was mentioned that the major impact of tissue culture technology would not be in the area of micropropagation, but rather in the area of controlled manipulations of plant germplasm at the cellular level. The ability to unorganize, rearrange, and reorganize the constituents of higher plants has been demonstrated with a few model systems to date, but such basic research is already being concted on ornamental trees and shrubs with the intent of obtaining new and better landscape plants.
SELECTION OF PLANTS WITH ENHANCED STRESS OR PEST RESISTANCE
Perhaps the most heavily researched area of tissue culture today is the concept of selecting disease, insect, or stress resistant plants through tissue culture. Just as significant gains in the adaptability of many species have been obtained by selecting and propagating superior indivials, so the search for these superior indivials can be tremendously accelerated using in vitro systems. Such systems can attempt to exploit the natural variability known to occur in plants or variability can be inced by chemical or physical agents known to cause mutations.
All who are familiar with bud sports, variegated foliage and other types of chimeras have an appreciation for the natural variability in the genetic makeup or expression in plants. Chimeras are the altered cellular expressions which are visible, but for each of these which are observed many more differences probably exist but are masked by the overall organization of the plant as a whole. For example, even in frost-tender species, certain cells or groups of cells may be frost hardy. However, because most of the organism is killed by frost, the tolerant cells eventually die because they are unable to support themselves without the remainder of the organized plant. Plant tissues grown in vitro can be released from the organization of the whole plant through callus formation. If these groups of cells are then subjected to a selection agent such as freezing, then those tolerant ones can survive while all those which are susceptible will be killed. This concept can be applied to many types of stress as well as resistance to fungal and bacterial pathogens and various types of phytotoxic chemical agents. The goal of selecting such resistant cell lines would be to reorganize whole plants from them which would retain the selected resistance (Fig. 4). Current research in this area extends across many interests including attempts to select salt tolerant lines of tomato, freezing resistant tobacco plants, herbicide resistant agronomic crops, and various species of plants with enhanced pathogen resistance. Imagine, if you will, the impact of a fireblight-resistant Bartlett pear, a clone of pin oak for alkaline soils, or a selection of southern magnolia hardy to zone 4!
TISSUE CULTURE AND PATHOGEN FREE PLANTS
Another purpose for which plant tissue culture is uniquely suited is in the obtaining, maintaining, and mass propagating of specific pathogen-free plants. The concept behind indexing plants free of pests is closely allied to the concept of using tissue culture as a selection system. Plant tissues known to be free of the pathogen under consideration (viral, bacterial, or fungal) are physically selected as the explant for tissue culture. In most cases, the apical domes of rapidly elongating shoot tips are chosen (Fig. 5). These are allowed to enlarge and proliferate under the sterile conditions of in vitro culture (Fig. 6) with the resulting plantlets tested for presence of the pathogen (a procere called indexing). Cultures which reveal the presence of the pathogen are destroyed, while those which are indexed free of pathogen are maintained as a stock of pathogen-free material. Proceres similar to these have been used successfully to obtain virus-free plants of a number of species and bacteria-free plants of species known to have certain leaf spot diseases. The impact of obtaining pathogen-free nursery stock can only be speculative, since little research documenting viral, bacterial, or fungal diseases transmitted through propagation of woody ornamentals is available.
SOMATIC HYBRIDIZATION
The ability to fuse plant cells from species which may be incompatible as sexual crosses and the ability of plant cells to take up and incorporate foreign genetic codes extend the realm of plant modifications through tissue culture to the limits of the imagination. Most such manipulations are carried out using plant "protoplasts". Protoplasts are single cells which have been stripped of their cell walls by enzymatic treatment. A single leaf treated under these conditions may yield tens of millions of single cells, each theoretically capable of eventually procing a whole plant. This concept has fueled speculation as diverse as the possibilities of obtaining nitrogen-fixing corn plants on the one extreme to discovering a yellow-flowered African violet on the other extreme.
The observation that has provided the impetus for most of this research is that when cells are stripped of their cell walls and brought into close contact, they tend to fuse with each other (Fig. 7). This "somatic hybridization" is not subject to the same incompatibility problems that limit traditional plant breeding strategies. It is conceivable then that one could hybridize a Juneberry with a crabapple or a plum, but the fundamental research required to demonstrate such an event has yet to be concted.
The potential use of somatic hybridization to bring about novel combinations of genetic material has been demonstrated in the genera Petunia and Nicotiana. Research funded in part by the Horticultural Research Institute at the University of Wisconsin is investigating the feasibility of using such techniques with woody species. Brent McGown and co-workers have succeeded in obtaining naked cells from tissue cultures of Betula and Rhododendron, but as of yet, they have neither obtained plants from single cells not achieved cellular fusion. However, further research in this area promises to have a tremendous impact on our concepts of woody plant diversity. Just as remarkable as the idea of fusing plant protoplasts is the idea of incorporating foreign genetic material into the genetic code of plant cells. Such transformations have been carried out in the so-called "gene-splicing" experiments where the information for making insulin was incorporated into bacteria. Not only is the desired information transmitted to succeeding generations of bacteria, but the bacterial cultures become synthesizers of insulin as well. Plant cells can be made to take up foreign genetic codes, but evidence that this can be transmitted into the daughter cells and serve the intended function is lacking. What if, for example, the genetic information for accumulating a very high sugar content is incorporated into a clone of sugar maples? One could think of enough what if誷 in this category to fill several volumes!
SUMMARY
Plant tissue culture research is multi-dimensional. While most nurserymen have been introced to the techniques and advantages of micropropagation, few have ventured to use it as a propagation tool. The applicability of micropropagation for woody trees has been demonstrated as feasible since all aspects of the technology have confirmed the fact that trees proced by this method look like and grow like their counterparts proced by traditional methods of cloning.
Other dimensions of tissue culture research have been less well publicized. The potential for selecting pathogen free plants, for selecting stress-tolerant and pathogen-resistant clones of plants, and the novel genetic combinations to be achieved through somatic hybridization are all lines of research which can have a profound impact on the nursery instry.
B. 【求助】安裝並且配置好apache＋php＋mysql之後該咋辦捏
#
# Based upon the NCSA server configuration files originally by Rob McCool.
#
# This is the main Apache server configuration file. It contains the
# configuration directives that give the server its instructions.
# See <URL:http://www.apache.org/docs/> for detailed information about
# the directives.
#
# Do NOT simply read the instructions in here without understanding
# what they do. They're here only as hints or reminders. If you are unsure
# consult the online docs. You have been warned.
#
# After this file is processed, the server will look for and process
# C:/Apache/Apache/conf/srm.conf and then C:/Apache/Apache/conf/access.conf
# unless you have overridden these with ResourceConfig and/or
# AccessConfig directives here.
#
# The configuration directives are grouped into three basic sections:
# 1. Directives that control the operation of the Apache server process as a
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#
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# with ServerRoot set to "/usr/local/apache" will be interpreted by the
# server as "/usr/local/apache/logs/foo.log".
#
# NOTE: Where filenames are specified, you must use forward slashes
# instead of backslashes (e.g., "c:/apache" instead of "c:\apache").
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# an explicit drive letter in absolute paths, however, to avoid
# confusion.
#
### Section 1: Global Environment
#
# The directives in this section affect the overall operation of Apache,
# such as the number of concurrent requests it can handle or where it
# can find its configuration files.
#
#
# ServerType is either inetd, or standalone. Inetd mode is only supported on
# Unix platforms.
#
ServerType standalone
#
# ServerRoot: The top of the directory tree under which the server's
# configuration, error, and log files are kept.
#
ServerRoot "C:/Apache/Apache"
#
# PidFile: The file in which the server should record its process
# identification number when it starts.
#
PidFile logs/httpd.pid
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# this file will be created when you run Apache) then you *must* ensure that
# no two invocations of Apache share the same scoreboard file.
#
ScoreBoardFile logs/apache_runtime_status
#
# In the standard configuration, the server will process httpd.conf (this
# file, specified by the -f command line option), srm.conf, and access.conf
# in that order. The latter two files are now distributed empty, as it is
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# server ignore these files altogether by using "/dev/null" (for Unix) or
# "nul" (for Win32) for the arguments to the directives.
#
#ResourceConfig conf/srm.conf
#AccessConfig conf/access.conf
#
# Timeout: The number of seconds before receives and sends time out.
#
Timeout 300
#
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# one request per connection). Set to "Off" to deactivate.
#
KeepAlive On
#
# MaxKeepAliveRequests: The maximum number of requests to allow
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# We recommend you leave this number high, for maximum performance.
#
MaxKeepAliveRequests 100
#
# KeepAliveTimeout: Number of seconds to wait for the next request from the
# same client on the same connection.
#
KeepAliveTimeout 15
#
# Apache on Win32 always creates one child process to handle requests. If it
# dies, another child process is created automatically. Within the child
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# libraries it uses) leak memory or other resources. On most systems, this
# isn't really needed, but a few (such as Solaris) do have notable leaks
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# unless advised otherwise.
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# NOTE: This value does not include keepalive requests after the initial
# request per connection. For example, if a child process handles
# an initial request and 10 subsequent "keptalive" requests, it
# would only count as 1 request towards this limit.
#
MaxRequestsPerChild 0
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# Set this value according to the responsiveness of the server (more
# requests active at once means they're all handled more slowly) and
# the amount of system resources you'll allow the server to consume.
#
ThreadsPerChild 50
#
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# ports, instead of the default. See also the <VirtualHost>
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#Listen 3000
#Listen 12.34.56.78:80
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# is used to tell the server which IP address to listen to. It can either
# contain "*", an IP address, or a fully qualified Internet domain name.
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#BindAddress *
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# To be able to use the functionality of a mole which was built as a DSO you
# have to place corresponding `LoadMole' lines at this location so the
# directives contained in it are actually available _before_ they are used.
# Please read the file README.DSO in the Apache 1.3 distribution for more
# details about the DSO mechanism and run `apache -l' for the list of already
# built-in (statically linked and thus always available) moles in your Apache
# binary.
#
# Note: The order in which moles are loaded is important. Don't change
# the order below without expert advice.
#
# Example:
# LoadMole foo_mole moles/mod_foo.so
#
#LoadMole vhost_alias_mole moles/mod_vhost_alias.so
#LoadMole mime_magic_mole moles/mod_mime_magic.so
#LoadMole status_mole moles/mod_status.so
#LoadMole info_mole moles/mod_info.so
#LoadMole speling_mole moles/mod_speling.so
#LoadMole rewrite_mole moles/mod_rewrite.so
#LoadMole anon_auth_mole moles/mod_auth_anon.so
#LoadMole dbm_auth_mole moles/mod_auth_dbm.so
#LoadMole digest_auth_mole moles/mod_auth_digest.so
#LoadMole digest_mole moles/mod_digest.so
#LoadMole proxy_mole moles/mod_proxy.so
#LoadMole cern_meta_mole moles/mod_cern_meta.so
#LoadMole expires_mole moles/mod_expires.so
#LoadMole headers_mole moles/mod_headers.so
#LoadMole usertrack_mole moles/mod_usertrack.so
#LoadMole unique_id_mole moles/mod_unique_id.so
#
# Reconstruction of the complete mole list from all available moles
# (static and shared ones) to achieve correct mole execution order.
#
# The moles listed below, without a corresponding LoadMole directive,
# are static bound into the standard Apache binary distribution for Windows.
#
# Note: The order in which moles are loaded is important. Don't change
# the order below without expert advice.
#
# [WHENEVER YOU CHANGE THE LOADMODULE SECTION ABOVE, UPDATE THIS TOO!]
ClearMoleList
#AddMole mod_vhost_alias.c
AddMole mod_env.c
AddMole mod_log_config.c
#AddMole mod_mime_magic.c
AddMole mod_mime.c
AddMole mod_negotiation.c
#AddMole mod_status.c
#AddMole mod_info.c
AddMole mod_include.c
AddMole mod_autoindex.c
AddMole mod_dir.c
AddMole mod_isapi.c
AddMole mod_cgi.c
AddMole mod_asis.c
AddMole mod_imap.c
AddMole mod_actions.c
#AddMole mod_speling.c
AddMole mod_userdir.c
AddMole mod_alias.c
#AddMole mod_rewrite.c
AddMole mod_access.c
AddMole mod_auth.c
#AddMole mod_auth_anon.c
#AddMole mod_auth_dbm.c
#AddMole mod_auth_digest.c
#AddMole mod_digest.c
#AddMole mod_proxy.c
#AddMole mod_cern_meta.c
#AddMole mod_expires.c
#AddMole mod_headers.c
#AddMole mod_usertrack.c
#AddMole mod_unique_id.c
AddMole mod_so.c
AddMole mod_setenvif.c
#
# ExtendedStatus controls whether Apache will generate "full" status
# information (ExtendedStatus On) or just basic information (ExtendedStatus
# Off) when the "server-status" handler is called. The default is Off.
#
#ExtendedStatus On
### Section 2: 'Main' server configuration
#
# The directives in this section set up the values used by the 'main'
# server, which responds to any requests that aren't handled by a
# <VirtualHost> definition. These values also provide defaults for
# any <VirtualHost> containers you may define later in the file.
#
# All of these directives may appear inside <VirtualHost> containers,
# in which case these default settings will be overridden for the
# virtual host being defined.
#
#
# Port: The port to which the standalone server listens. Certain firewall
# procts must be configured before Apache can listen to a specific port.
# Other running httpd servers will also interfere with this port. Disable
# all firewall, security, and other services if you encounter problems.
# To help diagnose problems use the Windows NT command NETSTAT -a
#
Port 80
#
# ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
# e-mailed. This address appears on some server-generated pages, such
# as error documents.
#
ServerAdmin [email protected]
#
# ServerName allows you to set a host name which is sent back to clients for
# your server if it's different than the one the program would get (i.e., use
# "www" instead of the host's real name).
#
# Note: You cannot just invent host names and hope they work. The name you
# define here must be a valid DNS name for your host. If you don't understand
# this, ask your network administrator.
# If your host doesn't have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address here.
# You will have to access it by its address (e.g., http://123.45.67.89/)
# anyway, and this will make redirections work in a sensible way.
#
# 127.0.0.1 is the TCP/IP local loop-back address, often named localhost. Your
# machine always knows itself by this address. If you use Apache strictly for
# local testing and development, you may use 127.0.0.1 as the server name.
#
ServerName localhost
#
# DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your
# documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but
# symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations.
#
DocumentRoot "C:/Apache/Apache/htdocs"
#
# Each directory to which Apache has access, can be configured with respect
# to which services and features are allowed and/or disabled in that
# directory (and its subdirectories).
#
# First, we configure the "default" to be a very restrictive set of
# permissions.
#
<Directory />
Options FollowSymLinks
AllowOverride None
</Directory>
#
# Note that from this point forward you must specifically allow
# particular features to be enabled - so if something's not working as
# you might expect, make sure that you have specifically enabled it
# below.
#
#
# This should be changed to whatever you set DocumentRoot to.
#
<Directory "C:/Apache/Apache/htdocs">
#
# This may also be "None", "All", or any combination of "Indexes",
# "Includes", "FollowSymLinks", "ExecCGI", or "MultiViews".
#
# Note that "MultiViews" must be named *explicitly* --- "Options All"
# doesn't give it to you.
#
Options Indexes FollowSymLinks MultiViews
#
# This controls which options the .htaccess files in directories can
# override. Can also be "All", or any combination of "Options", "FileInfo",
# "AuthConfig", and "Limit"
#
AllowOverride None
#
# Controls who can get stuff from this server.
#
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
</Directory>
#
# UserDir: The name of the directory which is appended onto a user's home
# directory if a ~user request is received.
#
# Under Win32, we do not currently try to determine the home directory of
# a Windows login, so a format such as that below needs to be used. See
# the UserDir documentation for details.
#
<IfMole mod_userdir.c>
UserDir "C:/Apache/Apache/users/"
</IfMole>
#
# Control access to UserDir directories. The following is an example
# for a site where these directories are restricted to read-only.
#
#<Directory "C:/Apache/Apache/users">
# AllowOverride FileInfo AuthConfig Limit
# Options MultiViews Indexes SymLinksIfOwnerMatch IncludesNoExec
# <Limit GET POST OPTIONS PROPFIND>
# Order allow,deny
# Allow from all
# </Limit>
# <LimitExcept GET POST OPTIONS PROPFIND>
# Order deny,allow
# Deny from all
# </LimitExcept>
#</Directory>
#
# DirectoryIndex: Name of the file or files to use as a pre-written HTML
# directory index. Separate multiple entries with spaces.
#
<IfMole mod_dir.c>
DirectoryIndex index.html
</IfMole>
#
# AccessFileName: The name of the file to look for in each directory
# for access control information.
#
AccessFileName .htaccess
#
# The following lines prevent .htaccess files from being viewed by
# Web clients. Since .htaccess files often contain authorization
# information, access is disallowed for security reasons. Comment
# these lines out if you want Web visitors to see the contents of
# .htaccess files. If you change the AccessFileName directive above,
# be sure to make the corresponding changes here.
#
# Also, folks tend to use names such as .htpasswd for password
# files, so this will protect those as well.
#
<Files ~ "^\.ht">
Order allow,deny
Deny from all
Satisfy All
</Files>
#
# CacheNegotiatedDocs: By default, Apache sends "Pragma: no-cache" with each
# document that was negotiated on the basis of content. This asks proxy
# servers not to cache the document. Uncommenting the following line disables
# this behavior, and proxies will be allowed to cache the documents.
#
#CacheNegotiatedDocs
#
# UseCanonicalName: (new for 1.3) With this setting turned on, whenever
# Apache needs to construct a self-referencing URL (a URL that refers back
# to the server the response is coming from) it will use ServerName and
# Port to form a "canonical" name. With this setting off, Apache will
# use the hostname:port that the client supplied, when possible. This
# also affects SERVER_NAME and SERVER_PORT in CGI scripts.
#
UseCanonicalName On
#
# TypesConfig describes where the mime.types file (or equivalent) is
# to be found.
#
<IfMole mod_mime.c>
TypesConfig conf/mime.types
</IfMole>
#
# DefaultType is the default MIME type the server will use for a document
# if it cannot otherwise determine one, such as from filename extensions.
# If your server contains mostly text or HTML documents, "text/plain" is
# a good value. If most of your content is binary, such as applications
# or images, you may want to use "application/octet-stream" instead to
# keep browsers from trying to display binary files as though they are
# text.
#
DefaultType text/plain
#
# The mod_mime_magic mole allows the server to use various hints from the
# contents of the file itself to determine its type. The MIMEMagicFile
# directive tells the mole where the hint definitions are located.
# mod_mime_magic is not part of the default server (you have to add
# it yourself with a LoadMole [see the DSO paragraph in the 'Global
# Environment' section], or recompile the server and include mod_mime_magic
# as part of the configuration), so it's enclosed in an <IfMole> container.
# This means that the MIMEMagicFile directive will only be processed if the
# mole is part of the server.
#
<IfMole mod_mime_magic.c>
MIMEMagicFile conf/magic
</IfMole>
#
# HostnameLookups: Log the names of clients or just their IP addresses
# e.g., www.apache.org (on) or 204.62.129.132 (off).
# The default is off because it'd be overall better for the net if people
# had to knowingly turn this feature on, since enabling it means that
# each client request will result in AT LEAST one lookup request to the
# nameserver.
#
HostnameLookups Off
#
# ErrorLog: The location of the error log file.
# If you do not specify an ErrorLog directive within a <VirtualHost>
# container, error messages relating to that virtual host will be
# logged here. If you *do* define an error logfile for a <VirtualHost>
# container, that host's errors will be logged there and not here.
#
ErrorLog logs/error.log
#
# LogLevel: Control the number of messages logged to the error.log.
# Possible values include: debug, info, notice, warn, error, crit,
# alert, emerg.
#
LogLevel warn
#
# The following directives define some format nicknames for use with
# a CustomLog directive (see below).
#
LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\" \"%{User-Agent}i\"" combined
LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b" common
LogFormat "%{Referer}i -> %U" referer
LogFormat "%{User-agent}i" agent
#
# The location and format of the access logfile (Common Logfile Format).
# If you do not define any access logfiles within a <VirtualHost>
# container, they will be logged here. Contrariwise, if you *do*
# define per-<VirtualHost> access logfiles, transactions will be
# logged therein and *not* in this file.
#
CustomLog logs/access.log common
#
# If you would like to have agent and referer logfiles, uncomment the
# following directives.
#
#CustomLog logs/referer.log referer
#CustomLog logs/agent.log agent
#
# If you prefer a single logfile with access, agent, and referer information
# (Combined Logfile Format) you can use the following directive.
#
#CustomLog logs/access.log combined
#
# Optionally add a line containing the server version and virtual host
# name to server-generated pages (error documents, FTP directory listings,
# mod_status and mod_info output etc., but not CGI generated documents).
# Set to "EMail" to also include a mailto: link to the ServerAdmin.
# Set to one of: On | Off | EMail
#
ServerSignature On
#
# Apache parses all CGI scripts for the shebang line by default.
# This comment line, the first line of the script, consists of the symbols
# pound (#) and exclamation (!) followed by the path of the program that
# can execute this specific script. For a perl script, with perl.exe in
# the C:\Program Files\Perl directory, the shebang line should be:
#!c:/program files/perl/perl
# Note you _must_not_ indent the actual shebang line, and it must be the
# first line of the file. Of course, CGI processing must be enabled by
# the appropriate ScriptAlias or Options ExecCGI directives for the files
# or directory in question.
#
# However, Apa
C. 哥幫我翻譯下那個文章唄`我真的很需要謝謝!
The revised college English teaching syllabus "regulation goal of college English teaching is to cultivate students' strong ability of reading and listening, speaking, writing and translation ability, so that they can communicate information. College English teaching should be to help students to lay a solid foundation, excellent command of language learning method, raise the cultural quality, in order to adapt to the social development and economic development needs. Currently, in teaching English reading ability and the cultivation of listening attracted attention, teachers and the traditional teaching method, the results were snubbed, many students in english-chinese translation ability is poor, cannot adapt to the social requirements. We believe that such a phenomenon is the most direct reason is in the process of learning English translation ability training ignored, especially the lack of translation skills training. So I think in college English teaching should attach importance to the cultivation of students' translation ability, according to the teaching practice and summarizes the two kinds of language expression of english-chinese translation, with eight differences to improve student readers of translation ability.
1. English and Chinese semantic structures. Chinese and English belong to two different languages. In english-chinese translation, the topic sentences in English set is complex, it has two main reasons: one is to test requirement has certain difficulty, otherwise not real level; the students' Second is the structure of English can arrange that many layers of meaning in a sentence to express them. Below we read an example:
Interests: (1) It to better promote raditional t historians who view the external and internal as how to criti2cism barron of social historians, train, who left their specific paintings safe using.
This sentence for 30 words, is a typical complex sentence. From the content, It provides two aspects: one is the information
Your interests, historians.., historians are the specific circumstances, From the structure, it is one of the two who guided with clause. Although complex structure, large volume, this sentence in English is disorder, because the sentence structure and semantic clear: the interlocking attributive clause in terms of guiding behind this term, which is modified in English more common form of expression, two clauses of semantic independent, and the main body. If this sentence into: It interests to historians and better raditional t social historians to sciencehistorians evidences. (or which promote view) the external and internal as how to train ofsources social criticism, historians (left) or as their specific paintings safe using mean exactly the same, but slightly ll, express way, the mouth bothersome English expression attaches great importance to the sentence structure, sentence structure on the proper arrangement often can achieve better effect.
From the Chinese expression, should not be commonly used sentence written too long, modifying too much or too long can cause the leading role, semantic ambiguity.
We look at this sentence literal translation:
It applies equally to history as only sources of history of external and internal criticism of traditional historians, and the specific historical research methods of equal social science historians.
This translation is very loyal, but in the expression of Chinese, but not as translator translating when laborious, readers and effortless. Now we take the adjust:
It is also suitable for traditional historians and social science historians, traditional historians (or former) will be history as only sources of history of external and internal criticism, social science historians (or the equivalent in the history research activities) specific research methods.
Obviously, after adjusting for one of the more smooth and more clearly. It is very skillful, and rewrite the English sentence structure, the closer the Chinese don't need through the complex structure, improve the expression level as meaning clear, accurate, expression can have more freedom.
2 how Chinese sentences in English sentences. Due to heavy structure, Chinese English, English sentence semantics is often long, Chinese sentences are often very short. This translation of the above example has been played very well. Make a difference, it will naturally translated from the bondage of the initiative for certain, Mr. Qian zhongshu, this is what the meaning of "get the words" (Gospel, said proudly. Forget
To successfully completed the form, the key is to change to English sentence structure analysis, the long sentences by cutting into several small groups. See below for example:
(2) and. Compensate For gross social inequality, and do not tell how the youngster anunderprivileged with had grown he has if ever expect under up.
This sentence for 31 words. From the structure, it is the main (.) +.. do not intended for predicate (j..) + object clauses with an underprivileged youngster (how) if.. + isplaced (had); he.. From the semantic, it has four layers: can't? So can't? There will be much talent? If? . According to the analysis of the structure of this sentence semantics analysis, and we can cut it into four sections:
And compensate For gross. Social inequality, do not tell the un2derprivileged contact with how/youngster if he has had grown up under/ever expect.
Because each short contains a meaning group, we can try after dividing into:
For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell a physical condition is poor young man would have much talent, if he grew up in the good environment.
So it is clear that, ok, but also the basic Chinese carefully check. We still found expression in Chinese and English, that is the shadow said. "if the condition?" In the last sentence is accord with Chinese expression custom. Next we will speak on English and Chinese in this aspect.
3 more English before, after more than Chinese. So-called gravity is the first said before said after details. Focus is to say after that result after details. Due to the Chinese focus on the translation should modify behind:? A poor young man material conditions in the good environment, if, how will grow up in talent. Here we see a:
(3) is no whether each methodology to your.inf or historical conceptspeculiar ingeneral webmaster to true traffic using moles of historical information branches.
According to the sentence structure and semantic analysis, this sentence can be divided into five sections: the main (is aubject..) + clauses (whether..) + rear attributive (peculiar to..) + selective paratactic clauses (or..) + rear attributive moles (to)... From the semantic, the result is that the details, clauses. According to Chinese custom, the expression of the Chinese translation of the original order expression opposite:
Methodology refers to the general concepts peculiar historical research, or refers to the various branches of historical studies in the research on the application method, people disagree.
If the English expressions in order to translate, Chinese couldn't. Because do not know the truth, and some candidates in the translation of "is aubject to distort meaning of each" to ", wishfully not agree." "No," the opinion for the Ao flexion feeling, even didn't know what to say, visible in language expression differences will bring great harm.
4 English much more active and passive Chinese. Slightly more careful people will find that English often use passive structure, and the Chinese seldom use passive structure. Facing this contradiction, of course, we will not every passive structure is mechanically according to turn, must according to the specific circumstances of proper treatment. Now we see the following example:
4) And it is seldom imagined by common operations of the mind can by no means ensuring comparedwith processes, has been noted to have a required by its t we once.
This sentence is three passive structure:? Is imagined? And? The echoes.? And? He required? . The first passive structure
Behind the action, such a passive sometimes just before mentioned senders action can become active: it is imagined, 1931
Contains many pretty? Imagine that seldom =? Therefore the up easier to: "a lot of people think?" It belongs to the first initiative passively
Circumstances. The 2nd kind of circumstance is not to do any changes can be translated into the passive sentences, the passive structure attribute this kind of situation
Condition, can be directly translated as echoes compared with? "" because" by comparison with? "in Chinese is obviously wrong. The third kind
The sentence is needed to make big adjustment can correctly handle: in the third passive structure by guiding although prepositions behind
As a person, but simply exchange subject, object and position of the work, this kind of situation clearly is usually e to the use of words, such as pronouns
They really mean? Verbs are required in what mean? To solve these problems need to be further understanding of both languages
In terms of the differences.
5. English more Chinese pronouns. In front of the case, except (3), and the rest were: (1) the pronoun in it,
In (2), (4) they have it and they that English often use pronouns. Chinese, but also use pronouns used frequency obviously not
If English is high. Translation in order to understand the exact meaning of sentences, don't know the pronoun refers not often is the subject is, because you do not know
When the predicate verbs mean also often unsure of the pronoun refers to mistake will make it more. Such as: (1) it refers to the former
Article mentioned fal1acy (fallacy), (2) the they talk refers the test (testing), (4) it is the subject of form, means
"For the above mentioned processes", and "processes for exactly" refers to the "mentioned process of men nowadays
The train "(these scientists thought process). Because the pronoun plays a very important role when nuttel, often must rection
Words, and it seems to be increased the difficulty of translation, in fact is to test your understanding of the sentence, we must be adept at this situation
In the article, the sentence for clues to the exact meaning expression comes out. Now we see cases (4) :
Many people think: the operations of the common mind can be by no means and scientists compared the thinking process, and they think these (scientists)
Thinking process must by a sort of special training.
Note the noun "into the pronoun they thought process;? "Master required. Translated," no, not passive and meaning
Had greatly changed, and then we will think of next difference between English expression.
6 English more Chinese extension reasoning. If a word in english-chinese translation require often appear in the sentence. Our feeling is that this word
Clear understanding, but don't know the exact meaning of it, or is it not know the meaning of that we already know. One reason may be very complex
Noise, but the two sentences in English proverbs may give us some enlightenment: one is "a word headline site will it keeps" (should)
Know the meaning of a word is watching it? What is the word around), "There is another thing that you have meaning and virtue
"(word meaning for the righteous with life, righteousness without words). That is, in particular environment tend to generate new meanings. From the original
The new perspective, the original meaning is generally the extended meanings, From the perspective of the translator, the extended became a reasoning.
Let's look at an example:
(5) list as the affiliate definitions of seldom promote affiliate are historians, as have different
Closely conforms to one that sees to promote the attempt to recreate and explain the based of s
Will.
"The dictionary to recreate" explanation "to create" and "entertainment", but whether "to create" or "entertainment" are not accord with the sentence
History, because neither "creating" nor "entertainment" "s based event of the past will" (historical significance
A). Judging from the common sense, and recreate into "reproction" is the objective facts, Therefore this sentence should be translated into:
Although the definition about history and historians almost as much as the most modern practice, with such a definition, namely make history as a collective
To the great historical events and interpretation.
Note the pronoun one noun "translated into definition. English: why, why one with Chinese, this also involves two languages
In the expression of another distinction.
7. English, Chinese much repetition. Front speak English and Chinese semantic structures, the difference in the two languages to express
The same conceptual difference when: English or change the expression, or in a different word, as one of the above mentioned is replaced with nouns, pronouns to avoid repeated use a word, for example to show the view (1)? As and left? It refers to the paintings that "or"
"As", for example. (3) the webmaster and historical historical information is really "history research", Translated into Chinese
When they have this change, the repeated repetition, just when they mean correct. In front of the various examples has more or less
Some repetitive phenomenon, which is the best example. Here we see the difference between English expression last.
More and more Chinese English abstract, and concrete. So-called abstraction is actually refers to some people, the expression method of english-chinese translation indefinitely if
A glance of the sentence, it will lose the exam this topic, so the examinee feel much more abstract english-chinese translation sentences are very positive
Often, and the final purpose of translation is to let people understand the meaning of sentences, so lets a person cannot appear in the expression of all. From this meaning
Righteousness, is in English, Chinese abstract content in specific content. Look at the following sentences:
(8) please, my Odd cosmic inflation is a scientifically plausible consequence of adding respected
In physics are elementary - in order to support the ast rophysicist s has for a I
It is t decade ahead I rue a decade it is t rue.
This word has three places are abstract: one is the consequence, 2 it is respected, three are for I was a
Decade. First we see a consequence of the dictionary, it means "result", in consequence, the meaning of cosmic inflation to illustrate
The expansion of the universe (said) seems to have no point, because it tells us from Big Bang (Big Bang theory) developed a kind of view,
Exactly should be a kind of "inference;" Respected to feel like are inexpressible, because can sense "respected theory" obviously
Not understand Chinese, "accepted" theory can let a person be clear at a glance, for I for a decade, I first
A word is strange, according to a word "headline will it keeps" principle, we should launch two word again and I decade in the greater equivalent, but most of the time "ten years" what meaning be? "Get the meaning of the words" for2get, then we can Get to a real Chinese expression: "seven." Below is the whole sentence translation: the expansion of the universe
Sounds strange, but it is the basic theory of particle physics recognized in some scientifically plausible consequence, eight many astrophysicists have been convinced for the theory is correct.
Improve translation ability, should not only has the solid foundation, but also the language to master certain translation skills, above is involved in english-chinese translation between the two languages, understand the difference between eight and flexibility in a certain extent, will enhance the translation level
D. tenda路由器設置，就是要登陸那個騰達的web，那個密碼和用戶是什麼啊
默認一般是admin/admin，改了的話建議把路由器恢復出廠設置，
E. 高分懇求有誰可以幫我翻譯這篇論文
The conversational mode of compliment and response features with adjacency structure and exhibits certain regularities, namely, compliment and response are in the form of pairs and mutually influenced. Due to different language using environment and cultural background between English and Chinese, such conversational mode demonstrates great differences on concrete occasions. This paper attempts to explore the pragmatic differences from the aspects of complimenting topics and occasions, form of complimenting and the response to compliment, thus revealing some cultural characteristics between Westernchinese and Chinese culture to facilitate cross-cultural communication.
【Key words】Compliment， Pragmatic difference ，Differences between Western and Chinese culture Cross-cultural communication
稱贊語（compliment）是建立與維護人際意義的普遍語言形式，是社會交際用語，不僅可以縮短交際者之間的社會距離，而且可以進一步地聯絡感情，鞏固人際關系。Compliment is the establishment and the maintenance of common language form ,and interpersonal meanings, social communication. It is not only can shorten the distance between social communication, but also can enhance feelings, consolidate the interpersonal relationship.
稱贊是一種配對性結構，即一方對另一方進行稱贊時，另一方通常得做出相應的回應，即被稱贊方是接受還是拒絕，以什麼樣的方式或言語行為來接受或拒絕。而不同文化背景下的人們在使用同一語言時，由於其文化根源的差異，通常會對同一語言現象產生不同的回應。Praise is a kind of matching structure, for instance, one praise you ,ann then you also make a corresponding response to his praised. Namely, to accept or refuse, in what ways or words to accept or refuse. The people under different cultural background in using the same language, because of its cultural roots, usually have different response on the same language phenomenon.這些回應在某種文化上是可接受的，但對於某種文化可能是不可接受的。通過對中西方稱贊語會話模式的研究表明，中西方在使用稱贊語方面有典型的差異性。同時，其會話模式的差異性在很大程度上反映了中西方人受到不同文化因素的影響，也體現出了中國人和英美人具有不同的心態和價值觀念。These responses in some culture may be are acceptable, but for some another culture may be unacceptable. Based on the mode of the compliments conversation between western and Chinese research shows that there are typical differences in use compliments. At the same time, the differences of their conversational modes largely reflects that we are affected by the various cultural factors in the western, but also reflects the Chinese and American people have different attitude and value.
一、英漢稱贊語的語用差異 the pragmatic difference between the compliment of English and Chinese.
1．英漢稱贊話題與場合的差異thedifference of Chinese and English compliments in topic or situation
Austin〔1〕的言語行為理論認為，人們使用某種語言形式主要是為了表達自己某種行事行為，簡言之就是以言行事。稱贊作為一種語言交際行為，它本身就是一種價值判斷，是公開地對某個人或某件事做出積極地評論，以此來鞏固人際關系。而不同社會的價值觀不同，引起社會評價的注意焦點不同，因此稱贊語所側重的內容及使用場合也存在著差異性。 [1] speech act theory of Austin said that people use some form of is mainly to express themselves .In a short words, and do actions by language. Praised as a kind of language communication, which itself is a kind of value judgment, for person,it comments openly or actively, in order to consolidate the interpersonal relationship. But in different socials have different values, the attentions of social evaluation is different, so that the contents of the compliments and usage on occasions also exist differences.
通過對中西方人稱贊語使用的研究表明，漢語稱贊語中能力、外貌和個性是主要話題。而在英美國家中，能力和外貌是主要話題，而對個性方面的稱贊極少。Through the research of the usage of Chinese and westerners it shows that Chinese compliments in appearance and personality, ability is the main topic. And in the UK, ability and appearance is the main topic, while it little praises personality.〔2〕中西方的大多數稱贊行為發生在社會地位及年齡相近的人之間。但如果是社會地位不同的人之間發生稱贊行為，在漢語環境中，稱贊行為通常由社會地位較低者發出。而同樣的情況在英美國家並非明顯。而無論是漢語使用還是英語使用者，女性得到的恭維大多在外貌方面，而對於男性則集中在能力或者成就方面。Most of western in praise of somebody in similar age and social status. But if it happens in different social status, in Chinese environment, praised by the social status of behavior usually lower. And the same situation is not obvious in Anglo-American countries. Both Chinese and English, most women in praise of appearance, to men in ability or achievement.
同時，在稱贊外貌時，英語側重「刻意修飾的效果」，而漢語則傾向自然的外表，而對於能力的稱贊，英語偏向贊揚對方經過努力後所取得的成就，如「Nice work」；而漢語除了贊揚對方的成就之外，還會提及對方為成功所做的努力，如「你的論文寫得挺不錯的，一定查了不少資料」。 At the same time, the appearance, English place extra emphasis on "decorate painstakingly effect", while Chinese prefers the natural appearance, while to the ability, English place extra emphasis on achievements through hard work, such as 「good job」, But Chinese not only praised the achievements, may also mentioned efforts, such as "your thesis, pretty good, must find a lot of information.
其次，稱贊語運用的場合不同。英語稱贊語傾向於表達平等、一致的關系，而漢語則側重於表示尊敬、關心對方。例如去別人家做客吃晚飯，英語文化背景下的客人多數會講類似這樣的話:「I enjoyed myself very much.」而漢語文化背景下，稱贊的話更多地被道歉的話所代替，如「做這么多菜，辛苦你了」。類似這樣的話表達了說話者對聽者的關心，是有禮貌的表現。另外，由於英語文化背景下的稱贊語強調雙方平等一致，所以稱贊語幾乎變成一種習慣用語，用於打招呼、致謝等。但是在漢語文化背景下，稱贊語強調尊重對方，表達稱贊時要讓對方感到自己真正受到別人的稱贊和尊敬，所以漢語稱贊語的出現頻率不及英語高。 Secondly, the uses of Compliments are different in different occasions. English Complimentary tend to express equality, the accordance, while Chinese are focus on respect, care for each other. For example, go to other people's homes for dinner, the guests who is under English background cultural will likely say like this: 「I enjoyed myself very much." While who is under the Chinese cultural background, the praise, then replaced by an apology, such as "to do so much food, you've worked hard.」 Similar to the case expressed concern about the listener, is a polite performance. In addition, because of English language and cultural background of the praise the same emphasis on an equal footing, so Compliment almost become a phrase used to greet, thank and so on. But in the context of Chinese culture, Compliments emphasized respect for each other, the expression of praise, we should let each other feel really appreciated and respected by others, so Chinese Compliment less high frequency than English.
2．英漢稱贊形式差異對比
近年來中外語言學者就稱贊語的表達形式進行了研究。Mancs與Wolfson在關於交際行為的研究上發現美國英語的稱贊語非常公式化，大部分是形容詞與副詞的表達組合。〔2〕根據兩位學者大量的資料統計，美國稱贊語中形容詞所佔比例高達80%，動詞佔16%，更重要的是80%的形容詞中使用頻率最高的只有五個：good、nice、great、pretty和beautiful，而16%動詞中最常用的詞只兩個：love和like。
2. The comparison between English and Chinese of praise form
In recent years, Chinese and English scholars have studied expression of the compliments. Wolfson and Mancs found that the behavior of the American English is very formulistic; most of the compliments are expressions of adjectives and adverbs. [2] according to the statistical data of two scholars, American compliment adjectives in proportion reaches as high as 80%, the verb (16%), more important is 80% of the used highest frequency adjectives is only five: good, nice, pretty and beautiful ; and the most commonly used the 16% verb phrase only two: love and like.
Chinese compliments, according to statistics, which from ZuoHuanQi professor who found that there is 46 % is adjective, 43% is adverb, only 7% for verbs. Professor found Chinese compliments in the use of high frequency adverb (43%), and most of the compliments contain adjective, adverb, often also have adverb as verb strength.
在句型選擇上，英、漢稱贊語差異較大。Manes和Wolfson統計資料表明，美國稱贊語最常用的句型有三種：In the pattern, the English and Chinese compliments are quite different . Wolfson and Manes 『s statistics have shown that the the most commonly used sentence compliments in United States are three:
（1）Np is/look（really）ADJ（53.6%）
（2）PRO（really）like/love NP（16.1%）
（3）PRO is（really）（a）ADJ NP（14.9%）
而中文稱贊語最常用的句型為「YOU V ADV」（你＋動語＋副詞）（左煥祺，1998），使用頻率高達41%。這種句型選擇差異體現了不同社會文化對語言表達形成的規約，美國人崇尚個性自由，評價事物突出個人感受，且直截了當。中國人注重個人與社會、與他人關系和諧，往往從對方立場出發考慮問題，因而稱贊語中以「YOU V ADV」的表達方式居多。The most common Chinese compliments sentence is " YOU V ADV " (ZuoHuanQi (1998)), the frequency of utilization is relatively high up to. 41%. This pattern choice reflects different social and cultural differences of language expression form Americans, evaluate indivial freedom. Chinese emphasize social harmony and relationships with others, often considered from others』 position, so the compliments in 「YOU V ADV」.
3．英漢稱贊語應答模式之對比The comparison of responds between Chinese and English
人們對稱贊的不同反映及應答體現出各自社會獨特的文化內涵。對他人的恭維、稱贊，西方人趨向於接受稱贊，但根據社會語言學的理論，由於社會因素和個人因素不斷影響，人們運用語言模式不可能是完全一致的。西方人在回答別人稱贊時，歸納起來可分為：接受式（Acceptances）、緩和式（）和拒絕式（Rejec-tions）。在接受式應答中，說話人對對方的稱贊表示感謝，或者表示同意對方的評價，或回贈稱贊。The difference of the respond to the praise reflects their social unique cultural connotation. For others』 praise, westerners tend to accept a compliment, but according to the theory of social linguistics, e to social and personal factors, people use continuously language patterns may not be completely consistent. Westerners in answer to the others』 praise are summed up and can be divided into: accept type (Acceptances), moderate (Mitigating Responses) and refused (Rejec-tions). In response, the people who is praised by other will Expressing thanks to speaker .Foe example,
A：Your blouse is beautiful.
B：Thanks.
在緩和式應答中說話者往往以各種途徑來轉移稱贊目標，或降低對方的稱贊程度，避開了「自我表揚」（sclf-praise），也避開了「否定他人」例如：moderate (Mitigating Responses) use various way to transfer target,or rece the degree of each other, avoid praise sclf-praise, and others negative they disagree;
A：I like your jacket.
B：I bought it on sale.
拒絕式應答就等於不同意對方的評價，在英語中這種應答模式總是竭力避免的。例如：Refuse is not agree, in English this response patterns are always trying to avoid. For example:
A：Your sweater is beautiful.
B：It』s not beautiful.
這種應答模式對交際雙方的關系破壞性最大，不利於人際關系的發展，說英語的人會把這種「否認」看作是對談話對象的無禮。在跨文化交際中，應竭力避免這一點。而中國人在受到稱贊後常採用「拒絕＋否定」模式，傾向於使用「否定」「自貶」的應答模式來接受他人的贊美之詞。這主要是由於中國人的謙虛而產生的一種交際模式。例如：This response patterns on both sides is most devastating relationship, against the development of interpersonal relationship, and the people who speak English will take the "deny" as the object of rude. In cross-cultural communication, we should be avoid it. However the Chinese often adopted in praise of "refuse + negative" mode, tend to use the "negative" self-denigration to accept compliments. This is mainly e to the Chinese modesty and a communication mode. For example:
A: Professor Wang, your essay is enlightening significance.
B: No, I think that is just my humble opinion.
A：王教授，你的那篇文章很有啟發意義。
B：哪裡，那隻不過是我的一點拙見。
在跨文化交際中，中國人往往本能地根據母語社會文化規則對稱贊做出不適宜的否定性反應，從而引發語用失誤，導致交際失敗。In cross-cultural communication, Chinese often instinctively according to the rules of social culture and language to praise inappropriate negative response, causing pragmatic failures in communication .
二、英漢稱贊語語用差異折射的深層文化差異Pragmatic difference between Chinese and English reflects the culture difference
美國人自我意識和獨立意識很強，其文化突出個體性，尊崇個人的人格、價值、尊嚴，倡導人的個體獨立性及不同的價值取向。而中國文化更強調群體關系，謙虛是中華民族的美德，因而贊美也就起著不同的作用，它能使聽話者對說話人有一個很好的印象，從而取悅聽話人，拉進彼此之間的距離。American『s self-awareness and independent consciousness very strong, and its culture is outstanding , worship indivial character, exalt personal dignity, value. But Chinese culture emphasize group, modesty is the relationship of virtue, thus praised also plays a different role, it can make people have a hearer of good impression, thereby, please the listener and shorten distance between each other.